Please Wait...
Click the print button below to print this page. There is a page break after each encyclopedia page, so printing this make take more pages than it appears on this screen. You can also create a PDF from this by selecting the Adobe PDF printer, if you have it installed.
Encyclopedia ID: p25
Paul F. Hessburg, Keith M. Reynolds, Robert E. Keane, Kevin M. James and R. Brion Salter
Wildland fuels have been accumulating in western forests of the United States (US) for at least the past 70 years due to 20th century settlement and management activities, and changing climatic conditions. As demonstrated by recent wildland fires, additional fuels are contributing to more intense fire behavior and increasing fire resistance to containment and control. Consequently, property and natural resources have been destroyed, costs of fire management have escalated, fire-dependent forest and rangeland ecosystems have deteriorated, and risks to human life and property continue to escalate.
Historically, fires of varying size, frequency, and intensity maintained spatial patterns of forest vegetation, as well as temporal variation in those patterns. In fact, many agents interacted to shape vegetation patterns and their spatio-temporal variation, including forest insect outbreaks, forest diseases, fires, weather and longer term climate events, and intentional aboriginal burning. The result was characteristic landscape patterns and variation in forest structural attributes, species composition, and habitats that resonated with the dominant disturbance processes.
Circumstances are quite different today. Human and climatic influences have created anomalous vegetation patterns, and these patterns support fire, insect, and disease processes that display uncharacteristic duration, spatial extent, and intensity. In this paper, we present a decision-support system for evaluating existing vegetation and fuel conditions and potential fire impacts, and for prioritizing subwatersheds for vegetation and fuel treatment. Fire danger is evaluated as a function of three primary topics: fire vulnerability, potential wildfire severity, and risk of ignition. Each primary topic has secondary topics under which data are evaluated. We demonstrate use of the application with an example from the
corresponding author:
Paul F. Hessburg
USDA Forest Service
Pacific Northwest Research Station
1133 N. Western Avenue
Wenatchee, WA 98801
phessburg@fs.fed.us.
Encyclopedia ID: p98
David M. Theobald, Alisa Wade, and Grant Wilcox
Colorado State University Natural Resource Ecology Lab
A framework that organizes natural and protected areas is often used to help understand the potential risks to natural areas and aspects of their ecological and human dimensions. The spatial (or landscape) context of these dynamics is also a critical, but rarely considered, factor. Current frameworks commonly used include the USGS GAP stewardship coding scheme, the IUCN Protected Area Management Categories, and the American Planning Association Land-based Classification Standards. The GAP and IUCN framework are coarse classifications (4-6 categories), while the APA focuses primarily on private land uses, but the landscape context remains ignored. To address these limitations, we extended the human modification framework to develop a comprehensive, hierarchical classification based on two dimensions: the degree to which natural processes are free or controlled, and the degree to which landscape patterns are natural or artificial. Three primary factors or activities are used to establish the position of a parcel of land along the process or pattern gradient: urban/built-up, recreation, and production/extraction. Common surrogate data and metrics for each of these factors have been developed. We illustrate our risk analysis by presenting results for
Land Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
David M. Theobald
Nautral Resource Ecology Lab
Colorado State University
1231 East Drive
Fort Collins, CO 80523-1499
davet@nrel.colostate.edu
Encyclopedia ID: p89
Minocha, Rakesh
USDA Forest Service Northeastern Research Station
Our focus is to identify metabolites or “cellular markers” that predict the impact of environmental pollution as well as biotic factors on health of forests by examining the foliage of visually asymptomatic trees. Our goal is to relate these markers to long term forest productivity. Environmental issues of concern include acidic deposition (especially N deposition) and heavy metals. Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen (N) may cause forest decline or enhance forest productivity depending on the initial N status of soils, and the rate and duration of N deposition. Heavy metals (Hg, Cd, Zn, Pb, and Cu) are toxic to plants and may decrease productivity when accumulated beyond threshold levels in soils. Our research has identified useful markers like putrescine (an aliphatic diamine), arginine (a common amino acid), and phytochelatins (metabolites produced by cells in response to heavy metal exposure) as cellular indicators. Foliar putrescine is a reliable and easily measurable marker of stress in visually healthy trees. It has also been shown to ameliorate some of the effects of soil Ca deficiency as its concentrations increase in response to decreasing soil Ca. Foliar putrescine was shown to be present in higher levels in hemlock trees that were resistant to hemlock wooly adelgid compared to the susceptible trees. Free amino acids, especially arginine, also increase in response to chronic N input at several hardwood and conifer sites and can indicate too much N availability or N saturation. In a study on the Harvard Forest Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) site, these changes were also accompanied by lower site productivity in red pine. In another project with red spruce, we observed that phytochelatins and their precursor accumulate in response to heavy metal exposure.
Land Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Northeastern Research Station
P. O. Box 640
271 Mast Road
Durham, NH 03824 USA
603-868-7622
rminocha@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p105
Randy Hamilton, Kevin Megown, Jim Ellenwood, Henry Lachowski, and Paul Maus
USDA Forest Service Remote Sensing
In recent years, unprecedented tree mortality has occurred throughout the National Forests due to insect infestations and disease outbreaks. The magnitude and extent of mortality, coupled with the lack of routine monitoring in some areas, has made it difficult to assess the damage and associated ecological impact and fire hazard in a timely and cost effective manner. To aid forest managers in assessing the damage, a cost effective multistage sampling method, using high-resolution digital aerial photography, was developed to estimate overall mortality across large areas. The method was tested within a 332,000-acre piñon/juniper woodland west of
Monitoring Methods Session - Tuesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Randy Hamilton
Remote Sensing
randyhamilton@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p82
D.N. Appel and K.S. Camilli
Texas A&M University Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology and Texas Forest Service Forest Resource Development
The oak wilt fungus, Ceratocystis fagacearum Bretz Hunt, has been described as the most dangerous pathogen to threaten forests in
Our goal is to provide natural resource managers with the information needed to contend with oak wilt. In central
Native Pests Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
David Appel
Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843
979-845-8273
appel@ag.tamu.edu
Encyclopedia ID: p72
Steven P. Norman, Sandra Jacobson, Christine Damiani, and Danny C. Lee
The tradeoffs that surround forest management are inherently complex, often involving multiple temporal and spatial scales. For example, conflicts may result when fuel treatments are designed to mediate long-term fuel hazards, but activities could impair sensitive aquatic habitat or degrade wildlife habitat in the short term. This complexity makes it hard for managers to describe and communicate the conditional nature of risk and to justify planned activities to stakeholders. In addition, our understanding of how proposed activities will affect resources of concern is often limited due to informational shortcomings and imprecise models. To be robust and transparent, a risk assessment framework needs to reveal these limitations while quantifying the probable outcomes of project effects to multiple resources of concern. In this paper, we describe the effects of fuel treatments using such a planning framework, called CRAFT (Comparative Risk Assessment Framework and Tools). CRAFT provides a platform from which diverse ancillary models and other relevant information can be transparently integrated and evaluated.
We conducted our case study in a portion of the Hayfork Adaptive Management Area of the Shasta-Trinity National Forest, California. As is typical of other mixed-conifer forests of
corresponding author:
Steven P. Norman
USDA Forest Service
Pacific Southwest Research Station
1700 Bayview Drive
Arcata, CA 95521-6013
stevenorman@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p102
Mary M. Rowland,
The sagebrush ecosystem is one of the most imperiled in the
Biodiversity Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Mary M. Rowland
USDA Forest Sevice
Pacific Northwest Research Station
1401 Gekeler Lane
La Grande, OR 97850
541-962-6582
mrowland@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p78
Fred May
Cascading hazard models depict either potential threat (threat model) sequences or document historic ones (consequence model). Wildfires and associated flashfloods produce a numerous array of potential threat sequences, too numerous to recall. Threat models developed using computer software designed to capture cascading and branching threat sequences enable mitigation workers to anticipate complex sequences, identify critical threats or consequences, and develop mitigation and response strategies and to determine systematic education or training needs.
Credible cascading threat models are developed by multi-agency teams of specialists. They are updated as events provide additional insights. Threat models are powerful analytical tools useful in regional planning and for detailed and systematic local hazard and risk assessments. These models have been used successfully for hazard and risk assessment with Federal, State and local planning teams coming together to analyze threat or consequence sequences for specific geographic areas. The systematic approach leaves “no stone unturned” in analyzing threat and risk and in determining mitigation or response strategies. The approach is efficient, allowing for a complete analysis in a couple of hours; updates for analysis conducted on an annual cycle require less time and are more complete than fragmental approaches based on limiting lists or tables of considerations. As analyses are conducted, the software allows for easy updating to include additional threats or consequences encountered during actual analysis sessions.
Cascading models are understood with a unique nomenclature beyond the typical primary and secondary hazards, and with threat and consequence/impact nomenclature, threat tree geography, linkage, and pathway and branch analysis. An effective analog is cascading (toppling) dominoes, arranged in branching sequences, depicting how a wildfire can threaten community or government resources. These are based on the combined experience of planning teams. Envisioning a single domino (part of a cascading sequence), one sees two numbers. For the purpose of cascading hazard and risk analysis, the top number refers to the degree of damage for a particular asset, while the bottom number refers to the degree of consequence if that asset is lost, or damaged. As dominoes tip over, they tip over in a sequence analogous to the cascading of threats in a wildfire, or post-burn flashflood. The first to topple is called the primary threat (anticipated) or consequence (historic), the second is the secondary threat, the third are tertiary threats, the fourth are quaternary threats, etc., in branching sequences. The computer depicts the branching sequences as a branching tree structure – a cascading threat or consequence model – also known as a hazard tree. In reality, what is observed are cascading degrees of damage and associated cascading degrees of consequence. The analysis process ultimately exposes the anticipated cascading wildfire and post-burn flash flood damages (losses) and consequences. It then serves as a realistic justification tool for mitigation. It also identifies highly-dangerous threats that may otherwise go undetected but can now be factored into decision making for development of mitigation strategies. Rather than developing mitigation plans for single point threats, as is often done, the strategies are developed for sequences of events, where some mitigation can be performed at each node between threats (dominoes).
This paper explains both generic (anticipated) and historic (consequence) cascading threat models for wildfire and post-burn flashflood. On August 18 through
Fire Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Institute for Emergency Preparedness
Jacksonville State University
700 Pelham Road
Jacksonville, AL 36265
Encyclopedia ID: p75
Danny C. Lee
USDA Forest Service, Eastern Forest Environmental Threat Assessment Center
Many current forest and rangeland management issues are inherently complex and broad-scale, involving multiple components interacting in space and time. The combination of system complexity, natural variation, and ignorance ensures that attempts to project future conditions or trends are inherently uncertain. At the same time, various goods and services provided by ecological systems are differentially valued by stakeholders. This leaves managers no option but to choose tradeoffs between competing values and uncertainties. Informed public management demands a rigorous means of incorporating stakeholder values and perspectives, and analyzing and displaying the consequences of alternative actions. To this end, comparative risk assessment (CRA) provides a candid and rigorous quantification of the risk (defined as expected loss) associated with alternative courses of action.
Despite its advantages, comparative risk assessment has not reached the stature that it seemingly deserves within natural resource management. There are many reasons why, but five excuses commonly given include 1) lack of expertise in either implementing or interpreting CRA, 2) lack of data and information, 3) daunting system complexity, 4) reluctance to express uncertainty, and 5) perception that CRA often is irrelevant to the final management decision. These are not insurmountable obstacles, as evidenced by this conference. Experienced practitioners of CRA and mangers that integrate CRA into their decisions can aptly demonstrate the utility and practicality of the CRA process. Remaining challenges include further advances in technology, education, and leadership.
corresponding author:
Danny C. Lee
Director, EFETAC
P.O. Box 2680
Asheville, NC 28802
828-257-4854
dclee@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p109
Rebecca S.H. Kennedy, Thomas A. Spies, Melinda Moeur, and Miles A. Hemstrom
Sustaining late-successional forest and associated wildlife habitat is one of the primary goals of the Northwest Forest Plan, and is currently addressed through the implementation of late successional reserve areas throughout the Plan area. In disturbance-prone landscapes such as the dry physiographic provinces of the Plan area (e.g., Eastern Cascades, Klamath Mountains, etc.), achieving this goal involves addressing the risk of loss of old forest to stand-replacing disturbances resulting from fuels buildup and altered future climatic regimes. Managers and planners need better information about historical and potential future fire regimes and their effects on vegetation patterns to increase the likelihood of success of forest planning efforts. Under altered climatic regimes, shifts in potential vegetation types and modifications to fire regimes may have dramatic effects on potential future old forest amounts and their distribution across landscapes. We developed an approach that integrates spatial simulation modeling, probabilistic risk analysis, and geospatial technologies to characterize the historical range of variability and the potential future range of variability of fire regimes and resulting vegetation patterns, in the
Biodiversity Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Rebecca S.H. Kennedy
USDA Forest Service
Pacific Northwest Research Station
3200 SW Jefferson Way
Corvallis, OR 97331
541-750-7262
rebeccakennedy@fs.fed.us
note: oral presentation only
Encyclopedia ID: p84
Stephen Cook and Karen Humes, Ryan Hruska, and Christopher Williams
University of Idaho Department of Forest Resources (1), Department of Geography (2) and Division of Statistics (4), and Idaho National Laboratory (3)
The balsam woolly adelgid, Adelges picea, and hemlock woolly adelgid, Adelges tsugae (Homoptera: Adelgidae), are invasive pests of coniferous forests in both the eastern and western
Exotic Pests Session - Tuesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Stephen Cook
Department of Forest Resource
University of Idaho
PO Box 441133
Moscow, ID 83844-1133
208-885-2722
stephenc@uidaho.edu
Encyclopedia ID: p70
Jennifer Pontius, Richard Hallett, Mary Martin, and Lucie Plourde
USDA Forest Service Northeastern Research Station (1-2) and University of
Hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand) (HWA) is an invasive insect pest that is causing widespread mortality of eastern hemlock. However, some stands remain living more than a decade after infestation. Susceptibility models were created from variables including soil and foliar chemistry and landscape position, and were validated against detailed, yearly, post-infestation decline measurements (including pre-visual symptoms). The most effective model was used to predict hemlock susceptibility to HWA infestation (post infestation rate of decline) at a landscape scale using variables derived from hyperspectral remote sensing imagery and digital elevation models (DEM). Our previous work has shown that hyperspectral remote sensing technology can be used to map the location of the host resource (hemlock abundance), hemlock health, and foliar chemistry (Nitrogen) and create continuous, spatially accurate, landscape scale coverages of these variables. We demonstrate this modeling technique by integrating these data layers into ARC GIS and creating a landscape scale model to map relative hemlock susceptibility to HWA in the Catskills region of NY. These techniques are applicable to HWA infestation across the Northeastern U.S. and will provide a basis for forest land management agencies to focus biological control efforts and make management decisions as HWA continues to spread.
Exotic Pests Session - Tuesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Jennifer Pontius
USDA Forest Service
Northeastern Research Station
P.O. Box 640
Durham, NH 03824
603-868-7739
Jennifer.Pontius@unh.edu
Encyclopedia ID: p65
Ronald F. Billings, L. Allen Smith, Jin Zhu, Shailu Verma, Nick Kouchoukos, and Joon Heo
Texas Forest Service (1-3) and Forest One, Inc. (4-6)
The objective of this research project was to develop and validate a method for using satellite images and digital geospatial data to map the distribution of southern pine beetle (SPB) habitats across the pinelands of East Texas. Our approach builds on the widely accepted work of Billings & Bryant, who used discriminant analysis of color infrared aerial photographs to identify and rank environmental conditions suitable for SPB infestation. Because current implementations of Billings & Bryant’s method by the Texas Forest Service (TFS) use manual photo interpretation, they are relatively costly, labor intensive, and require sampling. Satellite imagery and GIS technology present possible means to reduce operational costs and improve accuracy. Here we report the principal results of our work in a pilot area of East Texas, specifically: 1) development and integration of satellite and digital inputs into the Billings & Bryant model, 2) accuracy assessment of model inputs, 3) validation of the model adaptation through comparison of satellite-derived SPB hazard maps to operational maps produced by TFS, and 4) Re-validation of the model through comparison of satellite-derived SPB hazard maps to known locations of SPB infestations.
Native Pests Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Nick Kouchoukos
Forest One, Inc.
300 Park Boulevard, Suite 425
Itasca, IL 60143
630-250-1428
nkouchoukos@lanworth.com
Encyclopedia ID: p86
John W. Coulston, William D. Smith, Frank H. Koch, and Frank J. Sapio
North Carolina State University Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources (1,3)
USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station (2)
USDA Forest Service Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team (4)
Every year, a large number of non-native insects and diseases affecting forest tree species are intercepted at U.S. ports of entry from shipments of live plants, solid wood packing materials, logs and raw wood products, and other commercial goods. Pests that evade the inspection process may be accidentally introduced into nearby forests or, via interstate shipment, into other locations across the country. Potentially serious exotic pests that have recently made inroads into U.S. forested landscapes include sudden oak death (caused by Phytophthora ramorum), detected in coastal California in 1995, emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) in 2002 and the sirex woodwasp (Sirex noctilio), which was first detected in upstate New York in 2005. For these three pests and others, national-scale early detection/rapid response survey protocols were implemented soon after their discovery. The purpose of such surveys is to substantiate that areas outside initial invasion zones remain free of the pest of interest. Typically, the statistical reliability of such surveys has not been defined, nor has a desired level of statistical reliability been used in designing the surveys. Here, we adapt techniques used in preventative veterinary medicine for substantiating freedom from disease in animal herds to the spatial domain for forest pests. To accomplish this, we use a bootstrap approach to estimate the conditional probability of survey success in the spatial domain. The techniques may be applied in two different ways. First, they may be used to determine optimal sample sizes for new surveys given a desired level of confidence as well as acceptable pest detection probability and prevalence thresholds. Alternately, the techniques may be used to determine the detection probability and prevalence thresholds or the level of confidence based on sample size of existing surveys. We also discuss techniques to adapt the bootstrap estimation when the sensitivity or specificity of the insect trap or disease test is imperfect. The implementation of these techniques for future regional or national-scale surveys allows for optimal allocation of sample plots for maximizing reliability given limited funds to support future survey efforts.
Exotic Pests Session - Tuesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
William D. Smith
Southern Research Station
3041 E. Cornwallis Road
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
(919) 549-4067
bdsmith@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p107
Everett Hinkley, Tom Zajkowski, and
Aerial sketchmapping is the geo-locating of features that are seen on the ground below the aircraft, and the subsequent recording of those features. Traditional aerial sketchmapping methods required hand-sketching on hardcopy maps or photos, and the translation of that information to a digital file. In 1999, the
After a great deal of testing and evaluation, two systems have emerged and are in common use today; a two screen system and a pen tablet system. Advantages to the D-ASM system include automatic tracking of the aircraft’s position on a map base through a link to a GPS receiver and a significant reduction in the time spent digitizing data into a Geographic Information System (GIS). Now a mature system, the D-ASM has been widely accepted by the sketchmapping community.
Following initial system development, a D-ASM was shown to wildfire Air Attack crews who liked the concept, but wanted the system to be smaller, and for it to include a means to get the information down to the incident command in real time. Two technological developments solved these requirements; commercially available touch-screen pen tablet computers and the NASA developed long-range high speed data link named RIPCom. The Remote Internet Protocol Communications System (RIPCom) culminated from a successful two-year collaboration between NASA-Goddard and RSAC.
The integration of the D-ASM and RIPCom systems enable fire fighting experts to collect pertinent information about an incident and rapidly disseminate this information to the incident’s command through wireless devices. Possible customers within the wildfire community include; Air Attack, Helitack, Situation Unit Leaders, Operations Chiefs, and Incident Commanders.
Monitoring Methods Session - Tuesday Afternoon
corresponding authors:
Everett Hinkley
USDA Forest Service
Remote Sensing Applications Center
2222 West, 2300 South
Salt Lake City, UT 84119
801-975-3752
ehinkley@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p62
Brian Schwind, Brad Quayle, Ken Brewer, and Jeff Eidenshink
There is a need to provide agency leaders, elected officials, and the general public with summary information regarding the effects of large wildfires. Recently, the Wildland Fire Leadership Council (WFLC), which implements and coordinates National Fire Plan (NFP) and Federal Wildland Fire Management Policies (National Fire Plan, 2004), adopted a strategy to monitor the effectiveness and effects of the National Fire Plan and the Healthy Forests Restoration Act (HFRA). One component of this strategy is to assess the environmental impacts of large wildland fires and identify the trends of burn severity on all lands across the
To that end, WFLC has sponsored a six year project, Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity (MTBS), which requires the USFS and the USGS to map and assess the burn severity for all large current and historical fires. Using Landsat data and the differenced Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR) algorithm, the USGS/EROS Data Center and USDA-FS/
The MTBS project will generate burn severity data, maps, and reports which will be available for use at local, state and national levels to evaluate trends in burn severity and help develop and assess the effectiveness of land management decisions. Additionally, the information developed will provide a baseline from which to monitor the recovery and health of fire affected landscapes over time. Spatial and tabular data quantifying burn severity will augment existing information used to estimate risk associated with a range current and future resource threats. As an example, fire severity data along with associated biophysical characteristics provide an analytical basis for assessing risk from invasive species as well as native insects and pathogens. All data and results will be distributed to the public via an internet interface.
Fire Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Brian Schwind
USDA Forest Service
Remote Sensing Applications Center
2222 W. 2300 South
Salt Lake City, UT 84119
801-975-3765
bschwind@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p76
Kenneth W. Stolte
The Montreal Process Criteria and Indicators (MPCI) are a platform for the collection, analyses, and interpretation of data that directly affects the health and sustainability of forest ecosystems. Even with a focused list of Criteria and associated Indicators to address health and sustainability, it can be difficult to define key words or phrases, and difficult-to-impossible to obtain all desired datasets to fulfill information needs. It can be conceptually problematic for land owners and land managers facing an array of 67 Indicators within 7 Criteria, but can be clarified by the development of models of the interaction of MPCI Criteria, and models of Indicators within Criterion (C). This paper presents a systems model for understanding the primary relationships among the seven Montreal Process Criteria, and a systems model for understanding the relationships among the 3 Indicators of Criterion 3 (Forest Health and Vitality). Terminology of the 3 Indicators had to be clarified and defined, and approaches for analyses constructed, so that available but disparate data sets could be analyzed to determine the area and percent of forests affected in the
Monitoring Methods Session - Tuesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Kenneth W. Stolte
USDA Forest Service
Southern Research Station
3041 E. Cornwallis Road
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
919.549.4022
kstolte@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p67
Mee-Sook Kim, Ned B. Klopfenstein, Raini C. Rippy, Jane E. Stewart, Paul J. Zambino, Joanne M. Tirocke, and Walter G. Thies
USDA Forest Service – Rocky Mountain Research Station (1-6) and Pacific Northwest Research Station (7)
Long-term fire exclusion, introduced pests, selective timber harvesting, and selective planting have caused dramatic changes in forest-stand composition in much of the western
Root diseases are among the most understudied and underestimated sources of mortality that cause buildup of wildland fuels. Historically, root diseases apparently played a predominantly beneficial role in many forests by favoring ecological processes of succession, decomposition, and stand renewal through fire. In most natural stands, native root diseases do not typically cause irreparable, large-scale damage to ecosystems or threaten the loss of any host species. Recently, shifts in stand composition resulting from natural and human-caused disturbances have contributed to increased damage from root-rot diseases. At sites with increased risk of root rot disease, changes in root-disease dynamics have the potential to influence forest growth and succession for centuries. Thus, it is prudent to critically consider the potential impacts from root disease before selecting management activities, including fuels treatments.
Various fuels treatments are available, but treatments routinely involve mechanical treatments and/or prescribed fire. Mechanical treatments, such as thinning, can remove fuels as forest products, including biomass for energy. Thinning can be selective for species and size class. Other mechanical treatments may involve removing fuels ladders, placing fuels on the forest floor, and/or reducing the size of downed fuels to accelerate decomposition. Prescribed fire is also commonly used to reduce fire risk; however, its effects on resulting stand structure are less predictable than mechanical treatments. Long-term success of fuels treatments in lowering the risk of severe wildfire depends in part on the long-term impacts on root diseases that contribute to subsequent fuels accumulation. Thus, fuels treatment should be selected to match the overall objectives for a stand, while addressing potential impacts of root disease dynamics.
Fuels management requires an ecosystem-level approach, because root disease (and other causes of tree mortality) result from complex ecological interactions. For example, tree thinning can increase the inoculum potential of root-rot pathogens that colonize stumps, residual root systems, and/or slash. New opportunities for root disease can also be created by thinning-associated wounds on remaining trees. Also, thinning treatments that select against seral tree species (e.g., pine or larch) may result in stands dominated by tree species that are more susceptible to root rots (e.g., true firs or Douglas-fir). Fuels treatments that cause physiological stress to host trees may also increase the likelihood of root-rot problems. Although slash burning may vary in its effects on root disease caused by different pathogens, superficial burning appears to have little long-term impact on the physical distribution of some pathogens (e.g., Armillaria species, Phellinus weirii, and Heterobasidion annosum) that occupy protected areas within structural roots. However, some measures may reduce root-rot risk by limiting or removing substrate that would be available for colonization by root pathogens. Thus, appropriate fuels treatments should be selected to reduce current and future levels of fuels, while avoiding undesirable increases in root disease. Also, some pathogens are specific to certain tree species. For these reasons, an essential step in selecting appropriate fuels treatments is an on-site evaluation for the presence and distribution of each root disease likely to be present in an area proposed for fuels treatment. Root disease surveys include observing signs and symptoms on living trees, with additional examinations of snags, stumps, and overturned trees.
Currently, fuels reduction treatments are a prominent national issue; however, relatively few research studies have specifically addressed fuels-treatment effects on root diseases. This is of particular concern because the consequences of fuels treatments on root disease may not be readily apparent until decades after treatment. Long-term studies are critically needed to provide more precise information about the complex interrelationships among specific fuels treatment and root diseases in diverse environments. This paper explores concepts, technologies, and research needs to provide a better understanding of interactions among root pathogens, fuels treatments, and fire. A general synthesis of this information is essential for forest managers. Such information helps provide decision tools and guidance for developing fuels treatments prescriptions and root-rot management. In addition, the recent development of a web-based decision tool for evaluating fuels treatments on root disease will be presented and discussed.
Native Pests Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Mee-Sook Kim
USDA Forest Service
Rocky Mountain Research Station
1221 South Main Street
Moscow, ID 83843
208-883-2362
mkim@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p69
Patricia L. Winter and Heidi Bigler-Cole
USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research Station (1) and Pacific Northwest Research Station (2)
For complex situations, such as prediction of fire weather, there is a degree of uncertainty (Derby and Keeney 1981). How that uncertainty is addressed can be tailored to meet information users’ needs and preferences. Involving the users of predictive services in the design of messages, including the types of information delivered, format, and approach to risk, fits with Fischoff’s (1995) recommendation for involving the recipients of risk information in the crafting of the risk message. Johnson’s (2004) research suggests that risk statements should take into account variations in target audiences. Tolerance for risk has been outlined as an essential aspect of understanding management decisions (Gregory and Keeney 2002).
In this paper we describe a study conducted of recipients of risk-related information. We contacted users and potential users of National Predictive Services, including those who might receive services such as briefings, and those who might use their products, such as those offered through the various Geographic Coordination Center websites. Each potential user was a member of the fire management community, including fire management officers, meteorologists, information officers or public affairs personnel, and members of various fire-management teams. These individuals came from Federal, State, and more local fire agencies, though the majority were within Federal agencies. Respondents completed a self-administered survey via a web-based service.
Findings examine the types of information users reported needing, preferred formats for information delivery and likelihood of applying information from Predictive Services in decisions made about fire. Of interest to the risk management/risk communication focus are the reported views on acceptability of risk and tolerance for errors, how risk is viewed and addressed (through the view of Protection Motivation theory), and trust and confidence in the information delivered through Predictive Services. Barriers to utilization of Predictive Services are illuminated.
Fire Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Patricia L. Winter
USDA Forest Service
Pacific Southwest Research Station
4955 Canyon Crest Drive
Riverside, CA 92507
951-680-1557
pwinter@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p80
Mark A. Hatfield and Ronald E. McRoberts
USDA Forest Service North Central Research Station
Traditionally natural resource managers and users of natural resource data have asked the question “How much?” and have received sample-based estimates of totals or means for large areas such as counties, regions, or states. Increasingly, however, the same managers and users are now asking the additional question “Where?” and are expecting spatially explicit answers in the form of maps. Fortunately, the recent development and widespread availability of natural resource databases, moderate resolution satellite imagery, image classification techniques, statistical software, and geographic information systems (GIS) have facilitated construction of the required maps. Unfortunately, the relevance of the uncertainty associated with these maps has not been sufficiently emphasized, techniques for estimating it are either not known or are not taught, and systems for portraying and analyzing it are generally not available. When scientists who estimate and analyze uncertainty decry the lack of map uncertainty estimates, managers and users often respond that it doesn’t matter because the map itself is still useful and, besides, there are no other alternatives. Thus, it behooves uncertainty scientists to articulate the consequences of ignoring uncertainty and to describe and demonstrate to user communities the techniques for estimating and analyzing it.
This presentation illustrates the use of analytical, Monte Carlo, and sensitivity techniques for assessing uncertainty in three categories: (1) individual maps, (2) maps constructed by combining underlying maps using GIS techniques, and (3) maps constructed using models that accept input from underlying maps. In the first category, the emphasis is on estimating the precision of predictions for individual mapping units using analytical techniques associated with the particular map construction technique or Monte Carlo techniques when the analytical techniques are intractable or unavailable. In the second category, the emphasis is on estimating the precision of mapping unit predictions resulting from the GIS intersection of underlying maps. In the third category, the emphasis is on estimating the precision of mapping unit predictions when underlying map information is integrated via an application-based model. Examples and illustrations are drawn from map-based analyses of the potential threat to forest land in Michigan, USA, from the Emerald Ash Borer.
Statistical Methods Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Mark Hatfield
Forest Inventory and Analysis
North Central Research Station
1992 Folwell Avenue
St. Paul, MN
651-649-5169
mahatfield@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p104
Miles Hemstrom, Xiaoping Zhou, R. James Barbour, and J. Merzenich
USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station (1-2) and Pacific Northwest Region (4)
We used state and transition models to integrate natural disturbances (wildfire, insect epidemics, and others) with management activities to project potential future conditions of forest composition, structure, timber products, wildlife habitats, and disturbance probabilities in portions of the upper
Fire Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Miles A. Hemstrom
503-808-2006
Encyclopedia ID: p79
Bryce A. Richardson, Marcus V. Warwell, Mee-Sook Kim, Ned B. Klopfenstein, Paul J. Zambino, and Geral I. McDonald
USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station
To assess threats and/or predict responses to disturbance, it is essential that the population structures of forest species are recognized and characterized in relation to changing environments. Adequate management of these genetic resources into the future will require: 1) understanding the existing genetic diversity and population structure of forest trees and associated organisms, 2) understanding climatic change and its potential impacts on forest species and 3) development and use of new tools to identify populations at risk and areas suitable as future habitat.
Currently, plant-climate modeling suggests that climate change may represent a tremendous threat to forest ecosystems. Predictions indicate dramatic shifts in the future distributions of entire forest species (i.e., Picea spp.), under even conservative estimates of future climate change. Patterns of adaptive variation exhibited by most western species are also likely to undergo extensive redistribution resulting in large scale maladaptaion within species. These maladapted populations will likely face increased risks associated with catastrophic wildfire, attack by insect and pathogen pests, and losses in productivity.
Integrating existing population genetic structure with landscape-based, plant/climate modeling could provide the ability to assess threats to unique conifer populations and predict new and potentially disjunct locations of suitable habitat under warming climates. These tools will enable genetic resource managers to focus current and future species management efforts on populations at highest risk. Our ability to define populations and predict the effects of climate change on biogeographic displacement of forest trees is closely linked to future forest health. The developments in population genetics, ecological genetics and climate modeling of whitebark pine and western white pine will be presented and discussed. Similar approaches could be developed for other forest organisms.
Air and Water Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Bryce A. Richardson
USDA Forest Service
Rocky Mountain Research Station
1221 S. Main Street
Moscow, ID 83843
brichardson02@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p73
Ronald F. Billings and William Upton
Texas Forest Service
A practical and reliable system to forecast population trends and infestation levels of the southern pine beetle (SPB), Dendroctonus frontalis, has been implemented throughout the range of this forest pest in the southern
Native Pests Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Texas Forest Service
301 Tarrow, Suite 364
College Station, TX 77840-7896
rbillings@tfs.tamu.edu
Encyclopedia ID: p85
J. Brenner, D. Carlton, S. Mclellan, A. Dozier, T. Spencer, R. Jones and A. Ralowicz
Florida Division of Forestry (1,3)
Fire Program Solutions LLC (2)
Georgia Forestry Commission (4)
Texas Forest Service (5)
Sanborn Map Company Inc. (6)
MDA Federal Inc. (7)
Summary: We define wildfire risk as the probability of a wildfire occurring at a specified location and under given circumstances and its impacts on the affected objects e.g., homes, powerlines, plantations, etc (A. Bachmann et al 2001). Florida’s Wildland Fire Risk Assessment (FRA), completed in 2002, is a statewide effort to develop a comprehensive suite of standardized, spatial data layers needed to support implementation of a statewide fuels management strategy. By maintaining focus on fire/fuel dynamics and scientifically credible local-to-statewide applications, the FRA builds on a statewide surface fuels map, fire history data from many agencies, and weather data collected over a period of 20 years. Change detection is currently being utilized to update the statewide surface fuels layer. The process used in the FRA builds on a process first applied in the Lake Tahoe Basin Land Management Unit. Subsequent application with some modifications has recently been applied to thirteen Southern States (Southern Fire Risk Assessment).
Approach: FRA integrates several methodologies for predictive landscape modeling including remote sensing and fuels modeling into a comprehensive process for mapping vegetation, fire, and fuel characteristics. FRA methodologies are based on many years of successful scientific research and are grounded in the expertise of Mr. Don Carlton and his 30+ years of experience in the field of wildland fire behavior. FRA creates maps that characterize vegetation condition, potential fire behavior and effects. These maps may be used for prioritizing areas for fire prevention and fuels mitigation measures, as well as landscape rehabilitation and ecological restoration projects. They have also been used strategically to reduce wildfire costs, losses, and damages by assessing community risk from catastrophic wildfire.
On June 9th, 2004 the Commissioner of Agriculture for the State of Florida announced to the Florida press the completion of Florida’s Wildland Fire Risk Assessment. This announcement directed the public to two versions of the FRA application known as FRAS (Florida’s Wildland Fire Risk Assessment System). The first is a standalone application that requires additional software, e.g., ESRI’s ArcView 3.x, Flammap, and the Spatial Analyst Extension if one plans on making fire occurrence or fuel map changes and view the impacts resulting from fuels management or fire prevention efforts.
The second version of the application is the Web-FRAS. This application can be found on the Internet at the URL of: http://flame.fl-dof.com/risk/. The release of the Wildland Fire Risk Assessment on the Internet has made it available to anyone in Florida. In this way, individuals anywhere in the state can view the relative risk to their home/community by simply going on line and specifying what particular sets of data they want to see. The program presents that information immediately on request. The application is user friendly, and to date has received over twenty thousand requests for information. The two indices that can be displayed in both versions include the Wildland Fire Susceptibility Index (WFSI), which displays the potential for an area to burn, and the Level of Concern (LOC), which displays the potential impact or “risk” as defined in the Summary above.
We believe that we have managed to accomplish the original goals set out in the application for the Wildland Fire Risk Assessment. These goals included:
Outcome: This presentation will touch on several of the conference themes including: risk management across spatial and temporal scales, status of immediate and long-term threats, remote sensing and geospatial technologies, risk characterization and communication, decision making under risk, risk mitigation and alternatives, and simulation modeling. It will show why this system is important for today’s wildland fire manager.
corresponding author:
Jim Brenner
Fire Management Administrator
Florida Division of Forestry
3125 Conner Blvd.
Tallahassee, FL 32399-1650
850-488-6480
brennej@doacs.state.fl.us
Encyclopedia ID: p110
James Lenihan, Raymond Drapek, Ronald Neilson, Christopher Daly, and Dominique Bachelet
USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station (1-3,5), and
For nearly a decade the Mapped Atmosphere-Plant-Soil System (MAPSS) team from the USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station in
The fire forecasting requires monthly updating of the observed climate across the
The fire forecasts begin by simulating ecosystem and fire dynamics over the
After three seasons of fire forecasting, comparisons to observed fire data have shown MC1 fire forecasts to be reasonably accurate in terms of predicting both total area burned across the
The MAPSS team’s fire risk forecasting activities are supported by funding from the National Fire Plan, and serve all four elements of the National Fire Plan goals. At the beginning of each fire season, the MC1 fire forecasts are presented to fire managers from all nine western Geographic Area Coordination Centers (GACCs) attending the Western National Seasonal Assessment Workshop (NSAW) sponsored by the Predictive Services Group of the National Interagency Coordination Center (NICC), and are routinely incorporated into NICC’s seasonal weather/climate/fuels outlooks for the western GACCs. And currently over 160 land managers from various resource agencies are alerted each month to new fire forecasts posted on the MAPSS web site via an ever-growing email list.
Fire Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
James Lenihan
USDA Forest Service
Pacific Northwest Research Station
3200 SW Jefferson Way
Corvallis, OR 97331
541-750-7432
jlenihan@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p63
Marcus V. Warwell, Gerald E. Rehfeldt, and Nicolas L. Crookston
USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station
The Random Forests multiple regression tree was used to develop an empirically-based bioclimatic model for the
Biodiversity Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Marcus V. Warwell
USDA Forest Service
Rocky Mountain Research Station
1221 S. Main
Moscow, ID 83843
208-883-2322
mwarwell@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p90
Frank H. Koch and John W. Coulston
Current information on broad-scale climatic conditions is essential for assessing potential distribution of forest pests. At present, sophisticated spatial interpolation approaches such as the Parameter-elevation Regressions on Independent Slopes Model (PRISM) are used to create high-resolution climatic data sets. Unfortunately, these data sets are based on 30-year normals and rarely incorporate recent data. Furthermore, because they are constructed on a monthly rather than a daily time step, they do not directly measure simultaneous occurrence of multiple climatic conditions (e.g., days in the past year with appropriate temperature and adequate precipitation). Yet, the actual number of days—especially consecutive days—where multiple conditions are met could be significant for pest dispersal or establishment. For the sudden oak death pathogen (Phytophthora ramorum), we used National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) daily weather station data to create current, national-scale grids depicting co-occurrence of multiple climatic conditions.
For each station, we constructed two count-based variables: the total number of days and the greatest number of consecutive days in a year where the station met several conditions (temperature, rain/fog, relative humidity). We then employed gradient inverse distance squared (GIDS) interpolation to generate grids (4-km2 resolution) of these variables for five years (2000-2004). The GIDS technique weights standard inverse distance squared interpolation using coefficients based on geographic location (x, y) and a spatial covariate such as elevation. We determined the GIDS coefficients for each output grid cell via Poisson regression on the 30 closest stations using these variables, performing model selection to ensure only significant variables contributed to the GIDS coefficients.
We compared the output grids to maps assembled from the PRISM data depicting the probability all conditions were met in a given year. Expectedly, we found differences in areas highlighted as suitable for P. ramorum establishment by the two methods. We suggest that using current climatic data and calculating the variable of interest directly will provide more practical information for mapping forest pest risk.
Statistical Methods Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Frank H. Koch
Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources
North Carolina State University
2028 Biltmore Hall
Raleigh, NC 27695
919-549-4006
fkoch@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p92
Louis R. Iverson, Anantha Prasad, Jonathan Bossenbroek,
The emerald ash borer (EAB, Agrilus planipennis) is threatening to wipe out native ashes (Fraxinus sp.) from the North American continent, and is so far doing this well across large sections of Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Ontario. We are attempting to model its future movement by adapting a model developed for the potential movement of tree species over a century of climate change. We have two model variants, an ‘insect-flight’ model and an ‘insect-ride’ model to assess potential movement.
With the ‘flight’ model, probability of movement is dependent on EAB abundance in the source cells (270 m cells), the quantity of ash in the target cells, and the distances between them. There is a low-level ‘background’ probability of long distance transport via storms, etc. To estimate abundance, we assume an 11-year cycle along a normal curve with maximum abundance at year 6 and minimum abundance at the initial colonization time as well as after the ash trees have died within the cell. For initial conditions of EAB abundance, we estimated zones of infestation each year from 1998-2005 via known EAB location and other data.
With the ‘insect-ride’ model, we have utilized GIS data to weight factors related to potential human-assisted movements of EAB-infested ash wood or just hitchhiking insects: roads, urban areas, tree nurseries, various wood products industries, and especially campgrounds. With campgrounds, we are developing a gravity model which considers traffic volumes and routes between EAB source areas and various distances to campgrounds. Each layer has buffer weights, which when combined results in a map of zones of enhanced probability of EAB colonization. We also intend to apply various ‘slow the spread’ efforts to see how these may affect spread so that various management strategies can be evaluated.
Exotic Pests Session - Tuesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Louis R. Iverson
USDA Forest Service
Northeastern Research Station
740-368-0097
liverson@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p83
Marla C. Downing, Thomas Jung, Vernon Thomas, Markus Blaschke, Michael F. Tuffly, and Robin Reich
USDA Forest Service Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team; Consultant for forest and tree diseases; Information and Technology Experts, Inc. (ITX); Bavarian State Institute of Forestry; ERIA Consultants, LLC; and Colorado State University
Increases in anthropogenic transportation of commodities in the last 200 years have led to the international spread of Phytophthora pathogens. For example, the European species Phytophthora ramorum has recently caused tremendous damage and mortality to Quercus and Lithocarpus trees in California. To address concerns and gain information about the potential spread of additional Phytophthora species, the USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team (FHTET), in Fort Collins, Colorado, is assessing the risk of introduction and establishment of Phytophthora alni into the U.S. P. alni is a water-borne disease that is currently known to occur only in Europe on alder (Alnus) trees. It has spread throughout Europe via rivers, a natural dispersal mechanism for the pathogen, and through the common nursery practice of irrigating field stock with river water. The P. alni pathogen can adhere to the bare roots of non-host nursery stock and is capable of surviving transportation to the U.S. Therefore, to assess the risk of introduction of P. alni to the U.S., FHTET has developed a model that considers the importation of European nursery stock to U.S. wholesale nurseries and the natural dispersal mechanisms for the motile zoospores: streams and rivers. FHTET is currently developing an establishment model. First by assessing the presence or absence of P. alni in Germany using climate, elevation, slope, aspect, landform, soil, river, flood, and satellite data in a classification tree, a non-parametric statistical technique. Then the German model will identify the parameters that will be used to model the potential establishment of P. alni in the U.S. The product of the introduction and establishment surfaces will describe the overall national susceptibility.
Exotic Pests Session - Tuesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Marla C. Downing
USDA Forest Service
Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team
2150 Centre Avenue, Bldg. A., Suite 331
Fort Collins, CO 80526-1891
970-295-5843
mdowning@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p88
Ken Pierce, Ken Brewer and Janet Ohmann
One of the most fundamental informational needs in environmental risk assessment is consistent and continuous existing vegetation data. These data must be of sufficient accuracy and precision to address the complex and often uncertain ecological relationships necessary to understand risk factors and management options. Where these data do exist they are normally based on a sampling inference procedure rather than “wall to wall” inventory data. This is particularly true when the risk assessment covers large geographic extents and multiple ownerships. Despite the capability of simulation models and decision support tools comprehensive large area risk assessment is still difficult to implement because the inventory data are rarely complete and/or current. It would be convenient to be able to operate as if detailed inventory information were available for all units in the risk assessment area.
As an alternative to historically common statistical approaches (e.g., regression estimates or stratum averages) to populating unsampled units with data, imputation can be used. Imputation involves estimating values for variables of interest (Y variables) by supplying realistic measurements from one or more sampled units to unsampled units with similar characteristics in auxiliary (X) variable-space. Imputation of inventory data from sampled areas to similar unsampled areas produce datasets that function like “wall to wall” data for risk assessment purposes. The Gradient Nearest Neighbor (GNN) imputation method developed by Ohmann and Gregory has been implemented successfully over large geographic areas to characterize existing vegetation and fire and fuels characteristics. As currently implemented, this method develops 30 meter raster surfaces of inventory data that can then be readily analyzed for characterizing risks.
The USFS Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program has shown that it is possible to derive national mapping products using moderate resolution remote sensing images and GIS data layers (e.g. forest biomass, forest types/type groups). These maps were produced for the continuous US and
The current work (sponsored by the
Statistical Methods Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Ken Pierce
USDA Forest Service
3200 SW Jefferson Way
Corvallis, OR 97331
541-750-7393
kpierce@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p96
Jack D. Rogers, Ned B. Klopfenstein, Lori M. Carris, Mee-Sook Kim, Paul J. Zambino, Raini C. Rippy, John R. Goetz III, and Paul F. Hessburg
Washington State University Department of Plant Pathology (1,3,7), USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station (2,4,5,6) and Pacific Northwest Research Station (8)
Forest biologists have long investigated the ecological roles of pathogenic, mycorrhizal, and wood-decay fungi, but key contributions of other fungi and fungus-like organisms (e.g., non-pathogenic ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, zygomycetes, fungi imperfecti, and straminipiles) to forest ecosystems have been largely overlooked. Previously, such fungal species have been inadvertently overlooked because of difficulties in surveying/identification and preoccupation with obvious pathogens, mycorrhizal species, and wood decay fungi. Currently, coupled molecular and morphological characterizations of fungal cultures are allowing the survey of two groups of nonpathogenic, fungal communities that were previously poorly characterized: wood decomposers and root endophytes. These inconspicuous fungal groups may play critical roles in regulating forest response to disturbances.
Fungal decomposers are essential for nutrient recycling, bioremediation, and soil structure formation. They play key roles in balancing fuel deposits and woody residue decomposition, so knowledge of their activity is critical to understanding fire risk due to fuels buildup. In addition, some fungal decomposers strongly compete with root pathogens for woody substrates. Their presence and long-term viability can reduce root disease incidence and severity by direct antagonism or by competition for specific niches. Current studies are identifying fungi associated with decomposition in forest stands in various habitat types, soil types, and under different fertilization regimes. In ongoing surveys of fungi associated with wood decomposition in forest soil, over 1,100 isolates of nonpathogenic fungi from 16 families have been identified; many are in genera having species active in natural biological control of forest diseases. Our results suggest that inconspicuous and generally overlooked fungi are prevalent among the initial colonizers of fresh woody substrates in forest soil. These fungi could be playing important roles in moderating fire and disease threat to forests and facilitating recovery after disturbances.
The ecological roles of endophytic fungi in woody roots are not well understood. Our continuing studies have recovered over 500 unique isolates of endophytic fungi representing approximately 30 genera from living woody roots of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in the Inland Northwest, USA; many belong to genera with species that exhibit relatively high tolerance to soil heating and/or provide known biological control of fungal pathogens or insects. Current studies are underway to determine the ecological roles of these endophytic fungi in various environments, by monitoring their presence in interactions with fire and fuels treatments.
Knowledge of the occurrence and ecological roles of nonpathogenic and nonmycorrhizal fungi could aid prediction and management of forest disturbance regimes, especially under shifting climatic and management scenarios. We synthesize new scientific information to help forest managers understand the role of these inconspicuous fungi in relation to threats to western forests. As far as we are aware, no other programs are underway to inventory or determine the ecological roles of nonpathogenic and nonmycorrhizal fungi in forest ecosystems of the
Native Pests Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Ned Klopfenstein
USDA Forest Service
Rocky Mountain Research Station
1221 South Main Street
Moscow, ID 83843
208-883-2310
nklopfenstein@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p68
Patricia L. Winter and George T. Cvetkovich
USDA
A series of studies conducted on natural resource management issues surrounding risk to habitat, species, and humans has informed our understanding of the role of perceived similar salient values and trust (Cvetkovich and Winter 2002, 2003, 2004; Cvetkovich Winter and Earle 1995; Winter 2003; Winter and Cvetkovich 2000; Winter and Cvetkovich in press). Trust has continued to be highlighted as an essential element of fire management and communication (Shindler, Brunson and Cheek 2004; Winter, Vogt and Fried 2002; Winter, Vogt and McCaffery 2004) and risk management and communication in general (Covello and others 1986; Frudenberg and Rursh 1994; Johnson 2004; Slovic 1999 and 2000). However, the functions of salient values similarity and trust have not been explored in the context of the experience of residing within a fire prone community.
The risk and impact of fires have been significant on the
To examine these issues, 200 residents from fire prone communities surrounding an urban National Forest participated in focus group discussions and completed self-administered surveys. Results demonstrate the key influences that salient values similarity and trust have in perceptions of, and reactions to fire risk, personal actions taken, and responses to management actions. Implications for communication and collaboration, education, and management actions are discussed in light of the role of salient values similarity and trust in a risk environment.
Fire Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
USDA Forest Service
Pacific Southwest Research Station
4955 Canyon Crest Drive
Riverside, CA 92507
pwinter@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p97
Haiganoush K. Preisler, Alan A. Ager, Charles McHugh, Jane L. Hayes, and David R. Brillinger
USDA
Building probabilistic risk models for highly stochastic forest disturbances like wildfire and forest insect epidemics is a challenging problem. Even more difficult is modeling the synergistic relationships that often exist among disturbances. In the case of bark beetles and wildfire, of interest is the conditional probabilities of a fire given a beetle outbreak in some prior year, and the probability of of post-fire beetle outbreaks following wildfire. This study used a probabilistic model of wildfire occurrence built by the authors (HKP, DRB) and considers the additional influence of prior bark beetle infestations. The study used historic data (1980 – 2005) on fire occurrence and bark beetle outbreaks collected in
Fire Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Alan Ager
USDA Forest Service
Pacific Northwest Research Station
1401 Gekeler Lane
La Grande, OR 97850-3368
541-278-3740
aager@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p93
Frank J. Krist Jr.
The construction of the 2005 – 06 National Insect and Disease Risk map, compiled by the USDA Forest Service, State and Private Forestry Area, Forest Health Protection Unit, resulted in the development of a common GIS-based multi-criteria approach that can account for regional variations in forest health concerns. This framework, utilized by all nine Forest Service regions and 49 states, provides a consistent, repeatable, transparent process through which dynamic spatial and temporal risk assessments can be conducted at various levels to aid in decision making. The national framework consists of a five step process which can be a highly iterative process utilizing input from subject area experts:
1. Identify a list of risk agents and target host species.
2. Identify, rank, and weight criteria that determine the susceptibility (risk of introduction and establishment) and vulnerability (risk of mortality if an agent is established) to each risk agent. In some cases susceptibility to a pest approximates vulnerability and therefore represents risk of tree mortality. This is true for pests such as emerald ash borer and oak wilt.
3. Standardize risk agent criteria values and combine the resultant maps using a weighted overlay(s).
4. Convert modeled values for each risk agent to predicted Basal Area (BA) loss over a 15 year period.
5. Identify regions at risk of encountering a 25% or greater loss of total basal area or volume in the next 15 years. This potentially dynamic threshold was set by the National Risk Map Oversight team for the national risk map product.
Following these five steps models are individually run and dynamically assembled into a National Map on a central server located at the Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team (FHTET) in
This paper will briefly outline the risk map framework demonstrating how risk maps can be easily constructed at both the local, regional, and national levels using Southern Pine Beetle as an example. Model validation and updating are discussed along with a new ArcGIS toolset that has been developed to allow seamless transfer of GIS technology to resource managers engaged in risk assessments. Lastly, an internet based geospatial portal will be demonstrated which places dynamic risk map products directly in the hands of state, private, and federal resource managers.
corresponding author:
Frank J. Krist, Jr.
USDA Forest Service
Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team
2150 Centre Avenue, Bldg. A., Suite 331
Fort Collins, CO 80526-1891
970-295-5845
fkrist@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p66
Jennifer Juzwik, Jane
USDA
Native Pests Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Jennifer Juzwik
USDA Forest Service
North Central Research Station
1561 Lindig Ave.
St. Paul, MN 55108
651-649-5114
jjuzwik@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p94
Tricia L. Wurtz, Matt Macander, and Blaine T. Spellman
USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station, ABR Inc.--Environmental Research & Services, and
Exotic Pests Session - Tuesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Tricia L. Wurtz
Boreal Ecology Cooperative Research Unit
University of Alaska, Fairbanks
PO Box 756780
Fairbanks, AK 99775-6780
907-474-5994
twurtz@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p99
Jim Ellenwood, Arpad Lazar, and Everett Hinkley
USDA Forest Service Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team (1,2) and Remote Sensing Applications Center (3)
Introductions of invasive non-indigenous species and the ensuing negative ecological and economic consequences are increasing with escalating global trade. As global markets expand, the threat of species introductions into new habitats becomes greater. Tools that allow for the rapid assessment of invasive species need to be refined to allow for the efficient and accurate assessment of impacted resource conditions. Two recently established invasive insects, Asian Longhorn Beetle and Emerald Ash Borer, were investigated by FHTET utilizing different approaches to map host type and assess the ensuing damage. A broad scale detection of Asian Longhorn Beetle utilized SPOT V, high-resolution airborne imagery, and traditional aerial photography to map potential host and mortality. A finer scale approach was utilized for the Emerald Ash Borer that utilized Hyperspectral imagery, high-resolution airborne imagery, and LIDAR. Each of these projects had encountered a number of technical, procedural, and contractual issues which need to be considered for future applications. A framework to focus developmental effort to refine the application of existing remotely sensed technologies is proposed.
Monitoring Methods Session - Tuesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Jim Ellenwood
USDA Forest Service
FHTET
2150 Centre Ave., Bldg. A, Ste. 331
Fort Collins, CO 80526
970-295-5842
jellenwood@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p108
Michael H. Rauscher and John M. Pye
USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station
The Forest Threat Encyclopedia Project is using this conference to attract the initial content of an online resource on risk assessment as applied to forests and other wildlands. The encyclopedia will be the sixth on the Forest Encyclopedia Network but is the first to extend the collections spatial scope beyond the Southern U.S. to cover all of North America. Content from case studiy papers will appear in itheir own section, with each paper appearing as a linear sequence of HTML pages. The content from synthesis papers will be rearranged hierarchically to form a logical information architecture that helps visitors navigate through the content to the subject of interest. Early exchange of paper outlines has allowed authors to cross reference and coordinate their content beyond most ordinary proceedings. No single conference can cover all the subjects in this rich and expanding field, but the papers from this conference will form the nucleus for what we hope becomes an ongoing process of expansion and updating of content.
corresponding author:
John M. Pye
Forestry Sciences Laboratory
3041 E. Cornwallis Road
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
919-549-4013
jpye@fs.fed.us
note: oral presentation only
Encyclopedia ID: p103
Michael J. Furniss
Road networks are strongly related to most threats facing public forest and rangelands. Roads route people, vehicles, water, large wood and sediment, pathogens, and invasive propagules. Roads can fragment and connect aquatic and terrestrial habitats in complex ways. The capacity for fuel treatments and fire suppression depend, in part, on the location and condition of roads.
The threats themselves and the capacity to respond to them are strongly related to past and future road networks, so the consideration of threats often must consider roads and their potential and anticipated changes through time. Recent advances in the large-scale analysis of road networks have demonstrated practical approaches to interdisciplinary planning of future road networks that are responsive to modern and projected issues and needs.
Exotic Pests Session - Tuesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Michael J. Furniss
mfurniss@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p74
Darmawan Prasodjo, Jianbang Gan, and Bruce A. McCarl
Texas A&M University Department of Agriculture Economics (1,3) and Department of
One of the major challenges in assessing the impact of natural threats such as weather extremes, wildfire, and pest/disease outbreaks is how to take into account the stochastic nature of these threats in terms of both time and spatial dimensions and to incorporate both direct and indirect impacts. Probabilistic risk modeling is an effective tool for risk characterization, and a multiregional and multisectoral stochastic programming model is capable of incorporating spatial uncertainty as well as interregional and intersectoral linkages. Combining the strengths of these two modeling methods appears to be a promising tool for threat assessment.
This paper will first offer an extensive review of probabilistic risk modeling and stochastic programming and their applications in risk analysis and decision-making under uncertainty. Their advantages and disadvantages as well as suitability for threat assessment will be discussed. Drawing on this synthesis, we will then attempt to integrate these two modeling approaches and demonstrate its applicability using the case of the southern pine beetle (SPB), the most detrimental insect of southern pines. Using the probabilistic modeling approach, the risk of SPB outbreaks will be characterized. This will provide input (the stochastic component) to the
This paper will not only describe the modeling approach and demonstrate its applicability in threat assessment, but also offer empirical results on the characterization of SPB outbreak risk, economic impacts of SPB outbreaks under various scenarios (e.g. representing the historical trends and global climate change), and mitigation strategies. The impact will be measured in terms of output, price, and welfare. The mitigation options will include species mix, land-use change, salvage harvest, and improved management practices, among others. The model developed can be applied to assessing the threats of other natural and anthropogenic disturbances, and the empirical findings will provide guidelines for mitigating future SPB damage and supporting healthy forest management.
Native Pests Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Darmawan Prasodjo
Agriculture Economics
Texas A&M University
113 Jack K. Williams Administration Bldg.
College Station, TX 77843-2142
979-845-8224
dprasodjo@ag.tamu.edu
Encyclopedia ID: p95
Susan M. Stein and Ronald E. McRoberts
The Forests on the Edge project, sponsored by the USDA Forest Service, has conducted a comprehensive, national assessment of the contributions of private forest land to water quality and timber production and an assessment of the threats to these lands due to urbanization, fire, and ozone. The objective has been to identify and rank watersheds across the
The presentation focuses on two aspects of the study: first, a synthesis of the methodological lessons learned, and second, specific spatial results. First, because the study is national in scope, construction of nationally consistent maps was crucial. This requirement necessitated locating such maps in a format that could be easily imported for GIS analyses. If maps were not available, then it was necessary to construct them from data having the scope, breadth, consistency, and uniformity necessary for the application. In most cases, the Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program of the USDA Forest Service was the only source of such data. Because of time and resource limitations, map construction entailed imputing sample means to spatially regular polygons. Multiple GIS techniques for integrating maps depicting a combination of natural resource, political, and abiotic attributes were considered with the simple GIS intersection technique being selected. Finally, comments are provided on the efforts necessary to coordinate the cross-agency, multiple location effort.
The second aspect addresses the specific spatial assessment results. The analyses suggest the possibility of serious threats to contributions of private forest land to water quality from urbanization in the Southeast and
Land Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Susan M. Stein
Cooperative Forestry Staff
Mail Stop 1123
sstein@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p64
Don Evans
Remote sensing provides perhaps the best means to assess changes over time. In particular, aerial photography provides an invaluable record of land use and land cover conditions—frequently dating back to the 1930’s! Most forests have repeat photography on approximately a ten year cycle. This rich photo record can indicate changing threat conditions thru time including threats such as: insect damage, fuels buildup, unmanaged off-highway vehicle use, and loss of open space.
We’ve long recognized and valued the quality information content of photos; however, we’ve also long struggled with how to get our photos into our GIS. Current technologies have converged within the Forest Service that allow us to get our photos into a GIS rather easily. Within the GIS we can evaluate, analyze and document important changes.
This paper discusses historical photo data sources, software solutions and techniques for historical photo orthocorrection—along with examples of using historical imagery to document selected changing threat levels over time in several locations.
The methods described in this paper are available in all areas and provide the most consistent and objective method for detecting, assessing and monitoring changes through time.
Monitoring Methods Session - Tuesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Don Evans
USDA Forest Service
Remote Sensing Applications Center
2222 West 2300 South
Salt Lake City, UT 84119
801-975-3757
dtevans@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p77
Curtis A. Collins, David L. Evans, H. Alexis Londo, Patrick A. Glass, and Keith L. Belli
Mississippi State University College of Forest Resources (1 and 3), Mississippi State University College of Forest Resources (2 and 5), and Mississippi Institute for Forest Inventory (4)
In the wake of the landfall and passage of hurricane Katrina through South Mississippi on August 29, 2005, thousands of hectares of forestland were damaged or destroyed prompting massive salvage, cleanup, and assessment tasks. An initial assessment by the Mississippi Forestry Commission estimated that over one billion dollars in raw wood material was downed by the storm with county-level damaged forest percentages ranging from 60% to 50% across Mississippis three coastal counties. While this assessment was rapidly performed through aerial viewing using expert approximation, a more definitive and continuous damage assessment model was sought, leading to the acquisition and analysis of remotely sensed data taken before and after hurricane Katrina. By mapping this impact in a more accurate and continuous form, future economic and environmental policies can be influenced by the information produced so that the mitigation of present and future losses, due, for example, to the weakened state of residual forests (e.g., insects, fires, and secondary storm), can occur in an adequate manner. Beyond this characterization of post-Katrina resource damage, model development to predict the likely scope and severity of damage from future hurricanes, given the state of the forest resources that may be impacted, will also be explored.
In employing remotely sensed data to better grasp the damage inflicted by Katrina, low (250 - 500 m resolution), moderate (56 - 30 m resolution), and high (4 - 0.3 m resolution) resolution data were acquired from spaceborne and airborne platforms in panchromatic and MultiSpectral (MS) formats. With regard to the MS data, bands were captured across the three visible (blue, green, and red) as well as from various sections of the near- and mid-infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. In addition to these data, transformed data such as Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI) layers were also to be used as variables in the modeling process.
In preliminary work, moderate resolution (56 m) MS data transformed into NDMI layers was used in a strata definition exercise for allocating damaged assessment plots in the field. This was done by heuristically setting an NDMI threshold value that appeared to visually fit the expected distribution of damaged forest areas by timber type using state-wide forest type and age thematics that were created previously for the Mississippi Institute for Forest Inventory (MIFI). With these rough damaged and undamaged areas delineated, points were randomly allocated so that fifth-acre (0.08 ha) plots could be sampled to determine measured damage levels in the field. This measurement process is presently underway through support from MIFI.
Storm track, speed, and wind data (both from FEMA using their HAZUS software, and from NOAAs Hurricane Research Center) were also available for Katrina. From storm track and speed data it is expected that wind direction, duration, and stability can be derived, or at least accounted for, while wind data from FEMA and NOAA, in both sustained and gust forms, can provide for valuable predictive variables alone. Additional information, such as storm surge extent, is presently being sought to serve as another possible variable of interest related to current damage, not to mention future effects from the introduction of salt into freshwater environments.
Although field sampling of storm damage is in process, interpretation of high resolution imagery was performed yielding damage classification as well as crown closure differences between pre- and post-storm imagery in GIS-generated fifth-acre (0.08 ha) plots, which were intended to match field sampling plots. The purpose here was to create a bank of training and validation data for use in the model construction and testing phases of this project.
The modeling of more complex predicted damage estimates is presently being investigated using various maximum likelihood and least-squares fitting procedures in the hopes that categorical or continuous values may be derived using storm attribute and remotely sensed data. Modeling results are expected to be good as the rough mapping results performed using the moderate resolution NDMI procedure outlined above appeared visually correlated with anticipated damage regions. In fact, photo-interpretive class comparisons show ~71% agreement between located and interpreted photo plots and damage/undamaged classed forested pixels. The hope is that with more repeatable, less interpretative modeling procedures, more consistent and precise results can be obtained.
Air and Water Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Curtis A. Collins
Box 9681
Mississippi State, MS 39762
662-325-3540
ccollins@larsonmcgowin.com
Encyclopedia ID: p100
Gretchen Moisen, Raymond L. Czaplewski, Ken Brewer, Sean Healey
USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station (1,2,4) and Remote Sensing Applications Center (3)
Continuous improvement in risk assessment requires monitoring to directly detect and assess the extent and severity of realized disturbances relative to the predicted risk of those disturbances. The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program, conducted by the Research and Development branch of the USDA Forest Service, is well suited for monitoring all
Monitoring Methods Session - Tuesday Afternoon
corresonding author:
Raymond L. Czaplewski
USDA Forest Service
Rocky Mountain Research Station
2150 Centre Avenue, Bldg. A
Fort Collins, CO 80526
970-295-5973
rczaplewski@fs.fed.us
note: oral presentation only
Encyclopedia ID: p101
Thomas Perry and Jeremy S. Wilson
University of Maine Department of Forest Management
Wind damage influences forest management throughout the world and the forests of
Air and Water Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Jeremy S. Wilson
Department of Forest Management
University of Maine
5755 Nutting Hall
Encyclopedia ID: p71
Jeffrey K. Stone, Leonard B. Coop, and Daniel K. Manter
Swiss needle cast disease of Douglas-fir is caused by the ascomycete fungus Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii. Symptoms of the disease are foliage chlorosis and premature needle abscission due to occlusion of stomata by the ascocarps of the pathogen, resulting in impaired needle gas exchange. Severe defoliation and growth losses of 20-50% due to Swiss needle cast have been reported for about 150,000 ha of Douglas-fir plantations in western
Exotic Pests Session - Tuesday Afternoon
[note that Swiss needle cast disease is not an introduced pest in the Pacific Northwest, it is native there]
corresponding author:
Jeffrey K. Stone
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology
Oregon State University
Cordley Hall 2082
Corvallis, OR 97331-2902
stonej@science.oregonstate.edu
Encyclopedia ID: p81
N.E. Grulke, R.A. Minnich, T. Paine, A. Dunn, and D. Chavez
USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research Station (1,5)
University of California Department of Geography (2) and Department of Entomology (3)
USDA Forest Service San Bernardino National Forest (4)
Many factors increase susceptibility of forests to wildfire in California. Among them are increases in human population, changes in land use, increased fire starts, fire suppression, and frequent droughts. These factors have been exacerbating forest susceptibility to wildfires over the last century in southern California. Here we report on the significant role that air pollution has on increasing forest susceptibility to wildfires. Air pollution, specifically ozone and wet and dry deposition of nitrogenous compounds from fossil fuel combustion, has significantly increased since industrialization of the region after WWII. Ozone and elevated nitrogen deposition cause specific changes in forest tree carbon, nitrogen, and water balance that enhance individual tree susceptibility to drought, bark beetle attack, and combined, and these changes contribute to whole ecosystem susceptibility to wildfire. For example, elevated O3 and N deposition increase leaf turnover rates, N content of leaf litter, and decrease decomposability of litter. Uncharacteristically deep litter layers develop in mixed conifer forests affected by air pollutants. Elevated O3 and N deposition decrease the proportion of whole tree biomass in foliage and roots, the latter effect increasing tree susceptibility to drought and beetle attack. Because both foliar and root mass is compromised, overwinter carbohydrates are stored in the bole, perhaps contributing to increased beetle fecundity. Elevated O3 increases drought stress by significantly reducing plant control of water loss. The resulting increase in canopy transpiration, combined with [O3 + N deposition]-induced decreases in root mass significantly increase tree susceptibility to drought stress, and when additionally combined with increased bole carbohydrates, contribute to success of bark beetle attack. Phenomenological and experimental evidence is presented to support the role of these factors contributing to the susceptibility of forests to wildfire in southern California.
Native Pests Session - Wednesday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Nancy E. Grulke
Pacific Southwest Research Station
4955 Canyon Crest Drive
Riverside, CA 92507
951-680-1556
ngrulke@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p106
Alan Ager and Mark Finney
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station and Rocky Mountain Research StationA number of wildfire risk systems have been developed in recent years to provide land managers with tools to examine potential wildfire impacts. However, few of these efforts use well-established concepts and definitions of risk from the actuarial sciences, and none are sufficiently detailed for watershed-scale fuels treatment planning. In the context of wildfire, risk is the expected loss from a fire, calculated as the product of (1) probability of a fire at a specific intensity and location, and (2) the resulting financial or ecological damage. The process of wildfire risk assessment is concerned with changes in expected loss in response to fuel treatments, suppression, structure improvements, and assumptions about fire weather. We developed a wildfire risk model based on the expected loss concept and tested it on 16,000 ha wildland-urban interface in
corresponding author:
Alan Ager
USDA Forest Service
Pacific Northwest Research Station
1401 Gekeler Lane
La Grande, OR 97850-3368
541-278-3740
aager@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p91
Kerry Overton
USDA Forest Service R1/R4/RMRS Technology Transfer Program
A web-based decision support tool was developed to assist aquatic practitioners in managing fisheries and watershed information. The Framework was designed to support resource assessments and planning efforts from the broad scale to the fine scale, document procedures, and link directly to relevant research. The Framework is a hierarchical-hyperlinked template that is readily updateable. The Framework products consist of tabular and spatial displays of: 1) current aquatic resource condition and distribution; 2) desired aquatic resource future conditions; 3) aquatic resource risks and threats; 4) analysis approaches; 5) a conservation & restoration strategy; and, 6) a monitoring, inventory and research strategy. The Framework provides a logical template for developing, tracking and documenting aquatic information; hierarchical for summarizing available information at various scales associated with universally coded true watersheds (e.g. basin, subbasin, watershed, subwatershed); transparent and defensible; links management questions and data to best available science and procedures; and, helps define and display information assumptions and gaps. Different analysis approaches with supporting science or case studies are directly linked and downloadable from the Framework (e.g. extinction risk matrix table, influence diagrams, probabilistic networks). The Framework is designed to support USFS Regional species status overviews, subbasin assessments, watershed analysis, cumulative effects assessments, and project NEPA and consultation. Spatially explicit outputs are used to define and display risks and threats associated with fish, fish habitats, stream-riparian environments and watershed conditions. Broad scale summaries provide context for fine scale projects to help prioritize management actions for addressing risks and threats. The transparent design helps step down data and priorities for field unit implementation. The Framework is currently being utilized to support the aquatic portion of Forest Plan Revision in Region 1 and 4, and in implementing completed
Biodiversity Session - Thursday Afternoon
corresponding author:
Kerry Overton
Boise Aquatic Sciences Lab
322 E Front St., Suite 401
Boise, ID 83702
208-373-4357
koverton@fs.fed.us
Encyclopedia ID: p87